Tradescant, John

Tradescant added to his father's collection of natural history objects, ultimately forming a significant collection acquired principally from Algiers and Virginia. After the younger

Switzerland, Settlement patterns

The diversity of geomorphology, climate, and plant distribution in Switzerland provides a wide variety of sites for the formation of settlements, a variety further enhanced by the country's central European location. Because of its distinct cultural differences, Switzerland provides varied examples for the study of the geography of settlements. For example,

Switzerland, Settlement patterns

The common name given to about 50 to 60 species of small, stubby, generally short-tailed birds abundant in American tropical forests. Manakins are short-billed birds that range in size from 8.5 to 16 cm (3.5 to 6.5 inches) long and weigh a mere 10 - 40 grams (0.35 - 1.4 ounces). Females and immature males are typically coloured in drab greens and browns, but adult males are often black with

Earth, Convective electrojets

The auroral electrojets are two broad sheets of electric current that flow from noon toward midnight in the northern and southern auroral ovals. The dawn side current flows westward, creating a decrease in the magnetic field on the surface. The dusk side current flows eastward and produces an increase in the magnetic field. Both currents flow at an altitude of approximately

Zaporizhzhya

Russian �Zaporozhye, �also spelled �Zaporozhe, or Zaporozje, � oblast (province), southeastern Ukraine. It encompasses the northwestern shore of the Sea of Azov and stretches inland across the coastal plain, the Azov Upland, and the Dnieper Plain to the Dnieper River to include a very small part of that river's right-bank area. The entire oblast lies within the steppe zone, although much of the natural grass cover has been plowed

Waqidi, Al-

As a youth al-Waqidi is said to have been such an authority on the sacred cities of Mecca and Medina that he was guide to the 'Abbasid caliph Harun ar-Rashid during the latter's pilgrimage. Al-Waqidi became a grain dealer

Performing Arts, Nontheatrical Films.

The Academy Award-winning

Povazsk� Bystrica

Economic activities include the manufacture of heavy munitions. One of the town's notable structures is a Gothic church with tombstones dating

Wolfdietrich

Germanic hero who appears in the Middle High German poems of Ortnit and Wolfdietrich in Das Heldenbuch (see Heldenbuch, Das) as the son of Hugdietrich, emperor of Constantinople. Repudiated by his father, who mistakenly believes him illegitimate, he is brought up by the emperor's faithful retainer Berchtung von Meran. Berchtung and his 16 sons support Wolfdietrich,

Atlanta

The city owes its existence to the railroads, the routes of which were

Regency Style

Decorative arts produced during the regency of George, prince of Wales, and the opening years of the 19th century as well as his entire reign as King George IV of England, ending in 1830. The major source of inspiration for Regency taste was found in Greek and Roman antiquity, from which designers borrowed both structural and ornamental elements. The classical revival of

Great Chain Of Being

Also called �Chain Of Being, � conception of the nature of the universe that had a pervasive influence on Western thought, particularly through the ancient Greek Neoplatonists and derivative philosophies during the European Renaissance and the 17th and early 18th centuries. The term denotes three general features of the universe: plenitude, continuity, and gradation. The principle of plenitude

Devequt

Also spelled �Devekut� (Hebrew: �attachment�), in Jewish religious thought, an adherence to or communion with God that stops short of mystical union. The notion of devequt apparently derived from the biblical reference to �loving the Lord your God, walking in all his ways, and holding fast to him� (Deuteronomy 11:22). As a fundamental concept of the Jewish mystical system called the Kabbala, devequt was

Wandjina Style

Also spelled �Wondjina, � type of depiction in Australian cave paintings of figures that represent mythological beings associated with the creation of the world. Called wandjina figures, the images are believed by modern Aborigines to have been painted by the Wondjinas, prehistoric inhabitants of the Kimberley region in northwest Australia, the only area where cave paintings in the

Blobel, G�

Blobel received a medical degree at Eberhard-Karl University of T�bingen, Germany, in 1960 and in 1967 earned a Ph.D. in

Argyll, Archibald Campbell, 9th Earl Of, Lord Campbell, Lorne, And Kintyre

In his youth Campbell studied abroad but returned to Scotland in 1649. He fought at Dunbar (Sept. 3, 1650) and, after the Battle of Worcester, joined the Royalist leader Glencairn in the Highlands. Ultimately he fell foul of

Ascham, Roger

As a boy of 14, Ascham entered the University of Cambridge, where he later took his M.A. and was elected a fellow of St. John's and appointed reader in Greek. The new Renaissance enthusiasm for the classics, especially

Lahbabi, Mohammed Aziz

Moroccan writer and philosopher (b. Dec. 25, 1922, F�s, Morocco--d. Aug. 23, 1993, Rabat, Morocco), had influence in the Arab world through his many writings, some of which were translated into as many as 30 languages. Lahbabi was educated at the Sorbonne in Paris and received a doctorate of philosophy. He taught philosophy at Muhammad V University, Rabat, and the University of Algiers and held other

Graebner, Fritz

While a research assistant at the Royal Museum

Handedness

A tendency to use one hand rather than the other to perform most activities; it is the usual practice to classify persons as right-handed, left-handed, or ambidextrous. See laterality.

Philanthropinum

Late 18th-century school (1774 - 93) founded in Dessau, Germany, by the educator Johann Bernhard Basedow to implement the educational ideas of Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Aiming to foster in its students a humanitarian worldview and awareness of the community of interest among all people, it taught rich and poor boys together regardless of religious or class distinctions. The school

Muktafi, Al-

The son of al-Mu'tadid, al-Muktafi ascended to the throne in 902 with somewhat more popular support than his predecessors, thanks to his liberal rule and abolition of dungeons in Baghdad. He immediately faced battle with the Qarmatians, a schismatic

Pacific Ocean, Study and exploration

Andrew Sharp, The Discovery of the Pacific Islands (1960, reprinted 1985), summarizes the work of 121 explorers of the area and their contributions to charting the Pacific. J.C. Beaglehole, The Exploration of the Pacific, 3rd ed. (1966), and The Life of Captain James Cook (1974), are classics on the subject. Ernest S. Dodge, Beyond the Capes: Pacific Exploration from Captain Cook to the Challenger, 1776 - 1877 (1971), provides a thorough coverage of this important period.

California Aqueduct

Principal water-conveyance structure of the California State Water Project, U.S., running from the Sacramento River Delta east of San Francisco, south through the San Joaquin Valley, and over the summit of the Tehachapi Mountains, a distance of 273 mi (440 km). At this point it divides into east and west branches, the former terminating some 444 mi from the delta. Sizes of channels

Biblical Literature, Biblical exegesis and hermeneutics

The Cambridge History of the Bible, 3 vol. (1963 - 70), includes contributions by specialists on biblical interpretation from pre-Christian times to the present day. J. Barr, Old and New in Interpretation (1966), discusses the relation between the Old and New Testaments and examines critically some of the interpretative principles favoured by exegetes and theologians; another work on this subject is E.C. Blackman, Biblical Interpretation (1957). C.E. Braaten, History and Hermeneutics (1966), discusses the relevance of the historical-critical method to theological study and the idea of revelation through history; F.F. Bruce, Biblical Exegesis in the Qumran Texts (1959), examines the interpretative principles followed by biblical commentaries and other documents among the Dead Sea Scrolls. The major work on the theme of salvation-history in the Bible is O. Cullmann, Salvation in History (1967). C.H. Dodd, According to the Scriptures (1952), shows the various ways in which the Christian interpretation of important areas of the Old Testament provided the substructure of New Testament theology. F.W. Farrar, History of Interpretation (1886, reprinted 1961), provides a classical survey of biblical exegesis from the early rabbinical period to the 19th century; R.M. Grant, A Short History of the Interpretation of the Bible, rev. ed. (1963), is probably the best work of its kind. B. Lindars, New Testament Apologetic (1962), studies the Old Testament quotations in the New Testament as evidence, in their text and interpretation, for the developing life and thought of the primitive church. J.M. Robinson and J.B. Cobb (eds.), The New Hermeneutic (1964), expounds modern hermeneutical concerns. B. Smalley, The Study of the Bible in the Middle Ages, 2nd rev. ed. (1952), remains the standard work on early medieval exegesis. G. Vermes, Scripture and Tradition in Judaism (1961), gives an account of the interaction of the written text and oral tradition in Jewish exegesis of the pre-Christian and early rabbinical age. An outline of the history of biblical interpretation and of the main exegetical trends of the mid-20th century is presented in J.D. Wood, The Interpretation of the Bible (1958); A. Richardson and W. Schweitzer (eds.), Biblical Authority for Today (1951), discusses the difficulties of applying biblical ethics to some of the most urgent concerns of the modern world.

Earth, Intraplate activity

Although most tectonic activity takes place along plate boundaries, some occurs within plates. Much of this intraplate activity occurs along aulacogens and plume traces. An aulacogen can be defined as a failed third arm of a spreading ridge. Aulacogens commonly intersect a divergent plate margin at an angle of about 120�, and they form just as two continents begin to

Willard, Emma

Emma Hart was the next-to-last of 17 children; her younger sister was educator and writer Almira Hart (Lincoln Phelps). Encouraged

Carnivore, Natural history

Members of the Ursidae, except for the carnivorous polar bear (Ursus maritimus), are omnivorous, consuming many items that seem small for an animal the size of a bear. Ants, bees, seeds of trees, roots of the skunk cabbage, nuts, berries, insect larvae such as grubs, and even the dainty dog-toothed violet are eaten. Many bears relish honey, and the sun bear (Helarctos

Art And Architecture, Egyptian, Cult temples

It is generally thought that the Egyptian temple of the Dynastic Period owed most to the cult of the sun god Re at Heliopolis. The temple of Re, however, was probably open in plan and lacked a shrine. Sun temples were unique among cult temples; worship was centred on a cult object, the benben, which was a squat obelisk placed in full sunlight. Among the few temples surviving

Absalon

Scion of a powerful Zealand family, Absalon helped his childhood friend gain the Danish throne as Valdemar I (1156 - 57) and was named bishop of Roskilde in 1158. As the king's closest adviser, he initially supported Valdemar's alliance with Frederick I Barbarossa, Holy

Soil Chemistry

Discipline embracing all chemical and mineralogical compounds and reactions occurring in soils and soil-forming processes. The goals of soil chemistry are: (1) to establish, through chemical analysis, compositional limits of natural soil types and optimal growth conditions for the various plant communities, (2) to derive principles governing development of soil

Annapurna

Massif of the Himalayas in north-central Nepal, forming a ridge 30 miles (48 km) long between the basins of the Kali Gandak and Marsyandi rivers. It contains four main summits, two of which, Annapurna I (26,545 feet [8,091 m]) and II (26,040 feet [7,937 m]), stand at the western and eastern ends of the range, respectively; III (24,786 feet [7,555 m]) and IV (24,688 feet [7,525 m]) lie between them. Annapurna I is one of the world's highest peaks. Although

Norway, Union with Sweden

Norwegian independence got no support from the Great Powers, and Sweden attacked Norway in late July 1814. After a brief war of 14 days, Christian resigned. Jean Bernadotte (later known as Charles XIV John; called Karl Johan in Sweden and Norway), the Swedish crown prince, accepted the Norwegian constitution and thus could no longer argue on the basis of the Treaty of Kiel. This

Gadifer De La Salle

Gadifer won renown in the French campaigns against England during the Hundred Years' War (1337 - 1453). While on a crusade against Tunis in 1390, he met B�thencourt, who later pledged his lands to finance their expedition to the Canary Islands. In 1402 they occupied Lanzarote, the northernmost inhabited

Sabae

City, Fukui ken (prefecture), Honshu, Japan, in the northern end of the Takefu basin. The city first formed around the Buddhist Josho temple and became a post town after 1720. An administrative centre in the late 19th century, it gained importance as a centre for the production of silk and synthetic fibres. Specialized industries, such as the manufacture of optical frames and roof

B-film

Also called� B-movie,� or� B-picture,� cheaply produced, formulaic film initially intended to serve as the second feature on a double bill. During the 1930s and '40s, a period often called the Golden Age of Hollywood, B-films were usually paired with bigger-budget, more prestigious A-pictures; but two B-films were sometimes used for midweek or Saturday matinee showings. The characteristics of B-films included low

Feminine Ending

In prosody, a line of verse having an unstressed and usually extrametrical syllable at its end. In the opening lines from Robert Frost's poem �Directive,� the fourth line has a feminine ending while the rest are masculine: Back out of all this now too much for us,Back in a time made simple by the lossOf detail, burned, dissolved, and broken off Like graveyard marble sculpture

Saale Glacial Stage

Division of Pleistocene deposits and time in northern Europe (the Pleistocene Epoch began about 1,600,000 years ago and ended about 10,000 years ago). The Saale Glacial Stage followed the Holstein Interglacial Stage and preceded the Eemian Interglacial Stage, both relatively mild climatic periods. The extensive and complex Saale deposits are correlated with the Gipping Glacial

Lithuania

Agostino Di Giovanni

Agostino is first heard of in Siena in 1310 and again lived there in 1340 - 43. After 1320 he was active with Agnolo at Volterra, where they executed a number of scenes from the lives of SS. Regulus and Octavian. The work of the two sculptors cannot be clearly differentiated. Between

Anterus, Saint

Pope for several weeks at the end of 235 and the beginning of 236. He was elected (possibly Nov. 21, 235) while St. Pontian, his predecessor, was condemned to the Sardinian mines. Anterus was soon prosecuted and sentenced to death. According to the Liber pontificalis, he was martyred for having ordered a collection of the acts of the martyrs to be made and

Tighina

Also spelled �Tigina�, formerly called �Bendery�, Moldavian �Bender� city, Moldova. Tighina lies along the right bank of the Dniester River below its confluence with the B�c (Byk). A settlement has existed on the site since the 2nd century BC. It came successively under the rule of Kiev, Moldavia, Genoa, Turkey, and, in 1818, after frequent attacks, Russia. Between World Wars I and II it was in Romania. Today Tighina manufactures textiles, foodstuffs, cables,

Texas, Revolution and the republic

Unrest throughout Mexico, including Texas, resulted in a coup by Antonio L�pez de Santa Anna, who assumed the presidency in 1833. Texans, hopeful for relief from restrictive governmental measures, supported Santa Anna. Austin expected a friendly hearing about these grievances but instead was imprisoned in Mexico City for encouraging insurrection. He was freed in 1835 and

B�hmer, Johann Friedrich

After studying at the universities of G�ttingen and Heidelberg, B�hmer journeyed to Italy, where he became interested in art history. Upon his return to Frankfurt (1822), he became an assistant librarian

Biblical Literature, Tobit

The other Jewish short story possibly dating from Persian times is the book of Tobit, named after the father of its hero. From the fragments of the book discovered at Qumran, scholars now know that the original form of the name was Tobi. Tobit was from the Hebrew tribe of Naphtali and lived as an exile in Nineveh; his son was Tobias. Obeying the tenets of Jewish piety, Tobit

Gaultier De Varennes Et De La V�rendrye, Pierre

(French-Canadian explorer): see La V�rendrye, Pierre Gaultier de Varennes et de.

Ara�atuba

City, western S�o Paulo estado (�state�), Brazil, near the Tiet� River, which is dammed for power and irrigation. The city was founded in 1908 and was given town rank in 1917. In 1921 it was separated administratively from Pen�polis (to the southeast) and was designated the seat of a municipality. It serves an agricultural area (cotton, coffee, rice, corn [maize], and feij�o [beans]). Ara�atuba processes

Tabriz School

The early works of the Tabriz school were

Macdiarmid, Alan G.

MacDiarmid earned Ph.D.'s in chemistry at the University of Wisconsin at Madison (1953) and the

Racine, Jean

The classic biography is Raymond Picard, La Carri�re de Jean Racine, new ed. rev. and augmented (1961). Geoffrey Brereton, Jean Racine: A Critical Biography (1951, reprinted 1973), is also worth consulting. A popularized treatment is Alain Viala, Racine: la strat�gie du cam�l�on (1990). Racine's central place in the history of French tragedy is discussed in Jacques Truchet, La Trag�die classique en France (1975). Critical studies accessible to the general reader include John C. Lapp, Aspects of Racinian Tragedy (1955, reissued 1978); Odette de Mourgues, Racine; or, The Triumph of Relevance (1967); Claude Abraham, Jean Racine (1977); David Maskell, Racine: A Theatrical Reading (1991); Edward Forman (ed.), Racine: Appraisal and Reappraisal (1991); Richard Parish, Racine: The Limits of Tragedy (1993); Henry Phillips, Racine: Language and Theatre (1994); and Derval Conroy and Edric Caldicott, Racine: The Power and the Pleasure (2001). The most controversial interpretations of Racine (anthropological by Roland Barthes, Marxist by Lucien Goldmann, and psychoanalytical by Charles Mauron) are reviewed with many others by Jean Rohou, Jean Racine: bilan critique, ed. by Alain Pag�s (1994). Roy C. Knight, Racine et la Gr�ce, 2nd ed. (1974); and Ronald W. Tobin, Racine and Seneca (1971), elucidate Racine's vast knowledge of Greco-Roman antiquity. The rhetoric of the plays has been studied by Michael Hawcrowft, Word as Action: Racine, Rhetoric, and Theatrical Language (1992).

Frigidity

In psychology, the inability of a woman to attain orgasm during sexual intercourse. In popular, nonmedical usage the word has been used traditionally to describe a variety of behaviours, ranging from general coldness of manner or lack of interest in physical affection to aversion to the act of sexual intercourse. Because of the derogatory connotations that have

Elias, Norbert

Elias studied medicine, philosophy, and sociology and taught at the universities of Heidelberg

Likasi

Formerly (until 1966) �Jadotville, � city, southeastern Congo (Kinshasa). It lies along the Likasi River, 86 miles (138 km) northwest of Lubumbashi, to which it is connected by road and rail. In 1892 Belgians discovered copper deposits at Likasi and at Kambove, 15 miles (24 km) northwest. Likasi was founded in 1917 and was designated an urban district in 1943. It is now one of the nation's most important mineral-processing centres, with plants

Guadalupe Peak

Highest point (8,749 feet [2,667 metres]) in Texas, U.S. The peak is situated in Culberson county, 100 miles (160 km) east of the city of El Paso. Guadalupe Peak is part of the Guadalupe Mountains (a division of the Sacramento Mountains), and together with its twin, El Capitan (8,078 feet [2,462 metres]), it forms the focus of Guadalupe Mountains National Park.

Pox Disease

Any of a complex of viral diseases in human beings and domestic animals, marked chiefly by eruptions of the skin and mucous membranes. Sheep pox and rabbit pox are spread by airborne infectious particles that are inhaled. Horse pox, fowl pox, and mouse pox usually are spread by skin contact. Cowpox (vaccinia) and pseudo-cowpox (paravaccinia), localized on the udder and

China, Phase two: stalemate and stagnation

During the second stage of the war (1939 - 43) the battle lines changed very little, although there were many engagements of limited scale. Japan tried to bomb Free China into submission; Chungking suffered repeated air raids in which thousands of civilians were killed. In 1940 Japan set up a rival government in Nanking under Wang Ching-wei. But the Chinese would not submit. Hundreds

Rose, Hugh Henry, Baron Strathnairn Of Strathnairn And Of Jhansi

Son of the diplomat Sir George Rose, he was educated and received his military training in Berlin and entered the British army in 1820. From 1841 to 1848 he was consul general in Syria. As British liaison officer at French headquarters during the Crimean War,

Zetterling, Mai Elisabeth

Swedish actress and director (b. May 24, 1925, Vasteras, Sweden--d. March 15?, 1994, London, England), was a popular stage and screen actress in post-World War II Britain; in the 1960s she became a successful film director. Zetterling grew up in poverty and was largely self-educated. Her stage debut at age 16 earned her an invitation to join the Royal Dramatic Theatre School in Stockholm. She gained international